An Analysis of Racial Trends and Segregation in the Upper Darby School District
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Published:
Sep 15, 2020
Keywords:
resegregation, Brown v. Board of Education, residential segregation
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Abstract
Almost two-thirds of U.S. public school students currently attend schools where more than half of students are of their own race or ethnicity (1). While the famed Brown v. Board of Education sought to create an integrated school system, many studies report evidence of the policy’s failure. Scholars note that resegregation trends, in urban and suburban school districts, are worsening. This segregation crisis has attracted attention from media and policymakers, as many citizens languish in low-resourced communities that feed into low-resourced schools. Much of the existing research examines segregation trends by looking between school districts for outcome differences. With that, there is a lack of comprehensive research that examines within-district school segregation. The purpose of this study is to answer the following questions: 1) To what extent are Upper Darby Public Schools segregated by race/ethnicity and are there any notable historical trends? 2) What factors may have led to the current racial representation in Upper Darby public schools? 3) Has Upper Darby School District taken any actions to continue the legacy of Brown v. Board of Education? This research found a high segregation index within the district that stems from patterns of residential segregation and results in stark outcome differences between attendance zones. Gaining knowledge of historical trends in this Philadelphia suburb can provide guidance for school district efforts that seek to continue the legacy of Brown and alleviate racial tensions in suburbs experiencing racial and economic transformation.
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References
References
1. Geiger, A. (2017, October 25). Many minority kids go to schools where at least half of students are their race, ethnicity. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/10/25/many-minority-students-go-to-schools-where-at-least-half-of-their-peers-are-their-race-or-ethnicity/
2. Ogletree, C. J. (2004, April 12). All Deliberate Speed. Retrieved February 15, 2019 from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/general/news/2004/04/12/660/all-deliberate-speed/.
3. Bischoff, K., & Tach, L. (2018). The Racial Composition of Neighborhoods and Local Schools: The Role of Diversity, Inequality, and School Choice. City & Community, 17(3), 675-701. doi:10.1111/cico.12323
4. Hannah-Jones, N. (2017, September 06). The Resegregation of Jefferson County. Retrieved September 10, 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/06/magazine/the-resegregation-of-jefferson-county.html
5. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954, May 17).
6. Van Delinder, J. (2004, April). Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Retrieved October 9, 2018, from https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/spring/brown-v-board-1.html
7. Boozer, M., Krueger, A., & Wolkon, S. (1992). Race and School Quality Since Brown vs. Board of Education. Brookings Papers: Microeconomics,269-338. doi:10.3386/w4109
8. Reece, R. L., & O’Connell, H. A. (2016). How the Legacy of Slavery and Racial Composition Shape Public School Enrollment in the American South. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 2(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649215582251
9. Logan, J. R., Zhang, W., & Oakley, D. (2017). Court Orders, White Flight, and School District Segregation, 1970–2010. Social Forces,95, 1049-1075. doi:10.1093/sf/sow104
10. Kotok, S., Reed, K., Kucsera, J., & Orfield, G. (2015). Is Opportunity Knocking or
Slipping Away? Racial Diversity and Segregation in Pennsylvania. Is Opportunity Knocking or Slipping Away? Racial Diversity and Segregation in Pennsylvania. The Civil Rights Project.
11. Tatum, B. D. (2017, September 14). Segregation worwithse in schools 60 years after Brown v. Board of Education. Retrieved November 27, 2018, from https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/segregation-worse-in-schools-60-years-after-brown-v-board-of-education
12. Carter, R. L. (1968). The Warren Court and Desegregation. Michigan Law Review, 67(2), 237-248. https://doi:10.2307/1287417.
13. Boustan, L. P. (2010). Was Postwar Suburbanization "White Flight"? Evidence from the Black Migration. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,125(1), 417-443.
https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.417
14. Clotfelter, C. T., (1976). “School Desegregation, ‘Tipping,’ and Private School Enrollment.” The Journal of Human Resources 11(1): 28–50
15. Dougherty, J. (2012). Shopping for schools: How public education and private housing shaped suburban Connecticut. Journal of Urban History, 38(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144211427112
16. Schneider, J. (2008). Escape From Los Angeles. Journal of Urban History,34(6), 995-1012. doi:10.1177/0096144208317600
17. Baum-Snow, N., & Lutz, B. F. (2011). School Desegregation, School Choice, and Changes in Residential Location Patterns by Race. American Economic Review,101(7), 3019-3046. https://doi:10.1257/aer.101.7.3019.
18. Jackson, K. T. (1985). Crabgrass frontier: The suburbanization of America. New York: Oxford University Press.
19. Liebowitz, D. D., & Page, L. C. (2014). Does School Policy Affect Housing Choices? Evidence From the End of Desegregation in Charlotte-Mecklenburg. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 671–703. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541046
20. Siegel-Hawley, G., Bridges, K., & Shields, T. J. (2017). Solidifying Segregation or Promoting Diversity? School Closure and Rezoning in an Urban District. Educational Administration Quarterly, 53(1), 107–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X16659346
21. Jao, A. (2018, January 12). Segregation, school funding inequalities still punishing Black, Latino students. Retrieved December 4, 2018, from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/segregation-school-funding-inequalities-still-punishing-black-latino-students-n837186
22. U.S. Department of Education, The Condition of Education 2009, table A-32-3, http://nces.ed.gov/ programs/coe/2009/section4/table-pch-3.asp. 56.
23. Saporito, S., & Sohoni, D. (2006, April). Coloring Outside the Lines: Racial Segregation in Public Schools and Their Attendance Boundaries. Sociology of Education 79(2), 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070607900201.
24. Kaiser Family Foundation (2018) Poverty Rate by Race/Ethnicity. Retrieved December 8, 2018.
25. Highsmith, A. R., & Erickson, A. T. (2015). Segregation as Splitting, Segregation as Joining: Schools, Housing, and the Many Modes of Jim Crow. American Journal of Education,121(4), 563-595. doi:10.1086/681942
26. Leigh, P. R. (1997). Segregation by Gerrymander: The Creation of the Lincoln Heights (Ohio) School District. The Journal of Negro Education,66(2), 121. doi:10.2307/2967222
27. Richards, M.P. (2017). Gerrymandering educational opportunity. Phi Delta Kappan
99 (3), 65-70.
28. Richards, M. P., & Stroub, K. J. (2015). An Accident of Geography? Assessing the Gerrymandering of School Attendance Zones. Teachers College Record, 117(July), 1–32.
29. Whitehurst, G.J., Reeves, R. V., Joo, N., & Rodrigue, E. (2017). Balancing Act: Schools, Neighborhoods and Racial Imbalance. The Brookings Institution, n.d., 51.
30. Siegel-Hawley, G. (2013). Educational Gerrymandering ? Race and Attendance Boundaries in a Demographically Changing Suburb. Harvard Education Al Review, 83(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.83.4.k385375245677131
31. Richards, M. P. (2014). The Gerrymandering of School Attendance Zones and the
Segregation of Public Schools. American Educational Research Journal, 51(6), 1119–1157. doi: 10.3102/0002831214553652
32. Saporito, S., & Van Riper, D. (2016). Do irregularly shaped school attendance zones contribute to racial segregation or integration? Social Currents, 3(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496515604637
33. Saporito, S. (2017). Shaping Income Segregation in Schools: The Role of School Attendance Zone Geography. American Educational Research Journal, 54(6), 1345–1377. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217724116
34. Ihlanfeldt, K. (2018). The Deconcentration of Minority Students Attending Bad Schools: The Role of Housing Affordability within School Attendance Zones Containing Good Schools. Journal of Housing Economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2018.09.007
35. Billingham, C. M. (2019, February). Within-District Racial Segregation and the Elusiveness of White Student Return to Urban Public Schools. Urban Education 54(2), 151–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085915618713.
36. Diaz-Granados, C. (2014). District within a district: De facto segregation and white flight into and out of the school district of university city (1967-1991) (Order No. 3670351). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1650627479). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.villanova.edu.ezp1.villanova.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezp1.villanova.edu/docview/1650627479?accountid=14853
37. Cucchiara, M. B. (2013). Marketing schools, marketing cities: Who wins and who loses when schools become urban amenities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
38. Posey-Maddox, L. (2014). When middle-class parents choose urban schools: Class, race, and the challenge of equity in public education. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
39. Schwartz, A. E., Voicu, I., & Horn, K. M. (2014). Do choice schools break the link between public schools and property values? Evidence from house prices in New York City. Regional Science and Urban Economics,49, 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.08.002
40. Rothstein, R. (2015). The racial achievement gap, segregated schools, and segregated neighborhoods: A constitutional insult. Race and Social Problems, 7(1), 21-30. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.villanova.edu/10.1007/s12552-014-9134-1
41. Saporito, S. & Sohoni, D. (2009, August). Mapping School Segregation: Using GIS to Explore Racial Segregation between Schools and Their Corresponding Attendance Areas. American Journal of Education 115(4), 569–600. https://doi.org/10.1086/599782.
42. Ihlanfeldt, K. R., & Mayock, T. (2017). School Segregation and the Foreclosure Crisis. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 68, 277-290. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2975490
43. District Overview. (2018). Upper Darby School District. Retrieved February 11, 2019, from https://www.upperdarbysd.org/domain/44
44. U.S. Census Bureau (2013-2017). QuickFacts, Upper Darby, Delaware County, Pennsylvania. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/upperdarbytownshipdelawarecountypennsylvania
45. National Center for Education Statistics (1987-2017). Demographic Characteristics of the Population.
46. Upper Darby School District Demographic Data. (2019). Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/elsi/tableGenerator.aspx.
47. Lien, A. (2018). Local districts spending more on kids. Retrieved January 8, 2019,
from https://chesterspirit.com/2018/06/local-districts-spending-more-on-kids/
48. American Community Survey (2012-2016), Education Maps. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/maped/ACSMaps/
49. Upper Darby School District School Finder. (2019). Retrieved January 27, 2019, from https://schfinder.com/UpperDarbySD/
50. Frankenberg, E. (2012). Understanding Suburban School District Transformation. In The Resegregation of Suburban Schools: A Hidden Crisis in American Education(pp. 27-44). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
51. NAEP Nations Report Card - National Assessment of Educational Progress - NAEP. (2018, December 07). Retrieved November 29, 2018, from https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
52. Housing Equality Center of Pennsylvania. (2015) History: Agency Timeline and Impact. Retrieved from http://www.equalhousing.org/history/
53. "Investigatory hearing concerning problems of racial tension in Eastern Delaware County”, (Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission October 7, 1980).
54. McColloch, D. (2013). Analysis of Impediments to Fair Housing Choice (pp. 1-131, Publication). Philadelphia, PA: Office of Housing and Community Development.
55. Dayanim, S. L. (2017). Inner Suburbs. Retrieved February 3, 2019, from https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/inner-suburbs/
56. U.S. Census Bureau (1980). Characteristics of the Population. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980/1980censusofpopu8011u_bw.pdf
57. Rorer, B. (2019, April 16). Upper Darby Public Schools [Personal interview].
58. Frankenberg, E., & Orfield, G. (2012). Why Racial Change in the Suburbs Matters. In The Resegregation of Suburban Schools: A Hidden Crisis in American Education(pp. 1-26). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
59. Husbands v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (United States District Court, E. D. Pennsylvania March 31, 1975).
60. Tustin, K. (2016, August 30). New school year starts in Upper Darby; old issues continue to swirl. Retrieved from https://www.delcotimes.com/news/new-school-year-starts-in-upper-darby-old-issues-continue/article_3c13bec4-2068-5118-8957-6f4a85b41412.html
61. Reilly, L. (2012, August 27). Upper Darby officials discuss controversial elementary school choice plan. Retrieved from https://www.delcotimes.com/news/upper-darby-officials-discuss-controversial-elementary-school-choice-plan/article_36041b1b-835c-5504-a268-e0fe925bb829.html
62. Boccella, K. (2016, August 28). In Upper Darby, it's back to school, and racial allegations. Retrieved from https://www.philly.com/philly/education/20160828_In_Upper_Darby__it_s_back_to_school__and_racial_allegations.html
63. Boccella, K. (2016, August 04). Some see racial overtones in Upper Darby superintendent flap. Retrieved from https://www.philly.com/philly/education/20160805_Some_see_racial_overtones_in_Upper_Darby_superintendent_flap.html
64. Dougherty, T. (2019, April 09). Upper Darby School District Authorizes Study About Building New Middle School In Clifton Heights. Retrieved from https://philadelphia.cbslocal.com/2019/04/09/upper-darby-school-district-study-building-new-middle-school-clifton-heights/
1. Geiger, A. (2017, October 25). Many minority kids go to schools where at least half of students are their race, ethnicity. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/10/25/many-minority-students-go-to-schools-where-at-least-half-of-their-peers-are-their-race-or-ethnicity/
2. Ogletree, C. J. (2004, April 12). All Deliberate Speed. Retrieved February 15, 2019 from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/general/news/2004/04/12/660/all-deliberate-speed/.
3. Bischoff, K., & Tach, L. (2018). The Racial Composition of Neighborhoods and Local Schools: The Role of Diversity, Inequality, and School Choice. City & Community, 17(3), 675-701. doi:10.1111/cico.12323
4. Hannah-Jones, N. (2017, September 06). The Resegregation of Jefferson County. Retrieved September 10, 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/06/magazine/the-resegregation-of-jefferson-county.html
5. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954, May 17).
6. Van Delinder, J. (2004, April). Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Retrieved October 9, 2018, from https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/spring/brown-v-board-1.html
7. Boozer, M., Krueger, A., & Wolkon, S. (1992). Race and School Quality Since Brown vs. Board of Education. Brookings Papers: Microeconomics,269-338. doi:10.3386/w4109
8. Reece, R. L., & O’Connell, H. A. (2016). How the Legacy of Slavery and Racial Composition Shape Public School Enrollment in the American South. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 2(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649215582251
9. Logan, J. R., Zhang, W., & Oakley, D. (2017). Court Orders, White Flight, and School District Segregation, 1970–2010. Social Forces,95, 1049-1075. doi:10.1093/sf/sow104
10. Kotok, S., Reed, K., Kucsera, J., & Orfield, G. (2015). Is Opportunity Knocking or
Slipping Away? Racial Diversity and Segregation in Pennsylvania. Is Opportunity Knocking or Slipping Away? Racial Diversity and Segregation in Pennsylvania. The Civil Rights Project.
11. Tatum, B. D. (2017, September 14). Segregation worwithse in schools 60 years after Brown v. Board of Education. Retrieved November 27, 2018, from https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/segregation-worse-in-schools-60-years-after-brown-v-board-of-education
12. Carter, R. L. (1968). The Warren Court and Desegregation. Michigan Law Review, 67(2), 237-248. https://doi:10.2307/1287417.
13. Boustan, L. P. (2010). Was Postwar Suburbanization "White Flight"? Evidence from the Black Migration. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,125(1), 417-443.
https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.417
14. Clotfelter, C. T., (1976). “School Desegregation, ‘Tipping,’ and Private School Enrollment.” The Journal of Human Resources 11(1): 28–50
15. Dougherty, J. (2012). Shopping for schools: How public education and private housing shaped suburban Connecticut. Journal of Urban History, 38(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144211427112
16. Schneider, J. (2008). Escape From Los Angeles. Journal of Urban History,34(6), 995-1012. doi:10.1177/0096144208317600
17. Baum-Snow, N., & Lutz, B. F. (2011). School Desegregation, School Choice, and Changes in Residential Location Patterns by Race. American Economic Review,101(7), 3019-3046. https://doi:10.1257/aer.101.7.3019.
18. Jackson, K. T. (1985). Crabgrass frontier: The suburbanization of America. New York: Oxford University Press.
19. Liebowitz, D. D., & Page, L. C. (2014). Does School Policy Affect Housing Choices? Evidence From the End of Desegregation in Charlotte-Mecklenburg. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 671–703. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541046
20. Siegel-Hawley, G., Bridges, K., & Shields, T. J. (2017). Solidifying Segregation or Promoting Diversity? School Closure and Rezoning in an Urban District. Educational Administration Quarterly, 53(1), 107–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X16659346
21. Jao, A. (2018, January 12). Segregation, school funding inequalities still punishing Black, Latino students. Retrieved December 4, 2018, from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/segregation-school-funding-inequalities-still-punishing-black-latino-students-n837186
22. U.S. Department of Education, The Condition of Education 2009, table A-32-3, http://nces.ed.gov/ programs/coe/2009/section4/table-pch-3.asp. 56.
23. Saporito, S., & Sohoni, D. (2006, April). Coloring Outside the Lines: Racial Segregation in Public Schools and Their Attendance Boundaries. Sociology of Education 79(2), 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070607900201.
24. Kaiser Family Foundation (2018) Poverty Rate by Race/Ethnicity. Retrieved December 8, 2018.
25. Highsmith, A. R., & Erickson, A. T. (2015). Segregation as Splitting, Segregation as Joining: Schools, Housing, and the Many Modes of Jim Crow. American Journal of Education,121(4), 563-595. doi:10.1086/681942
26. Leigh, P. R. (1997). Segregation by Gerrymander: The Creation of the Lincoln Heights (Ohio) School District. The Journal of Negro Education,66(2), 121. doi:10.2307/2967222
27. Richards, M.P. (2017). Gerrymandering educational opportunity. Phi Delta Kappan
99 (3), 65-70.
28. Richards, M. P., & Stroub, K. J. (2015). An Accident of Geography? Assessing the Gerrymandering of School Attendance Zones. Teachers College Record, 117(July), 1–32.
29. Whitehurst, G.J., Reeves, R. V., Joo, N., & Rodrigue, E. (2017). Balancing Act: Schools, Neighborhoods and Racial Imbalance. The Brookings Institution, n.d., 51.
30. Siegel-Hawley, G. (2013). Educational Gerrymandering ? Race and Attendance Boundaries in a Demographically Changing Suburb. Harvard Education Al Review, 83(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.83.4.k385375245677131
31. Richards, M. P. (2014). The Gerrymandering of School Attendance Zones and the
Segregation of Public Schools. American Educational Research Journal, 51(6), 1119–1157. doi: 10.3102/0002831214553652
32. Saporito, S., & Van Riper, D. (2016). Do irregularly shaped school attendance zones contribute to racial segregation or integration? Social Currents, 3(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496515604637
33. Saporito, S. (2017). Shaping Income Segregation in Schools: The Role of School Attendance Zone Geography. American Educational Research Journal, 54(6), 1345–1377. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217724116
34. Ihlanfeldt, K. (2018). The Deconcentration of Minority Students Attending Bad Schools: The Role of Housing Affordability within School Attendance Zones Containing Good Schools. Journal of Housing Economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2018.09.007
35. Billingham, C. M. (2019, February). Within-District Racial Segregation and the Elusiveness of White Student Return to Urban Public Schools. Urban Education 54(2), 151–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085915618713.
36. Diaz-Granados, C. (2014). District within a district: De facto segregation and white flight into and out of the school district of university city (1967-1991) (Order No. 3670351). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1650627479). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.villanova.edu.ezp1.villanova.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezp1.villanova.edu/docview/1650627479?accountid=14853
37. Cucchiara, M. B. (2013). Marketing schools, marketing cities: Who wins and who loses when schools become urban amenities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
38. Posey-Maddox, L. (2014). When middle-class parents choose urban schools: Class, race, and the challenge of equity in public education. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
39. Schwartz, A. E., Voicu, I., & Horn, K. M. (2014). Do choice schools break the link between public schools and property values? Evidence from house prices in New York City. Regional Science and Urban Economics,49, 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.08.002
40. Rothstein, R. (2015). The racial achievement gap, segregated schools, and segregated neighborhoods: A constitutional insult. Race and Social Problems, 7(1), 21-30. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.villanova.edu/10.1007/s12552-014-9134-1
41. Saporito, S. & Sohoni, D. (2009, August). Mapping School Segregation: Using GIS to Explore Racial Segregation between Schools and Their Corresponding Attendance Areas. American Journal of Education 115(4), 569–600. https://doi.org/10.1086/599782.
42. Ihlanfeldt, K. R., & Mayock, T. (2017). School Segregation and the Foreclosure Crisis. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 68, 277-290. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2975490
43. District Overview. (2018). Upper Darby School District. Retrieved February 11, 2019, from https://www.upperdarbysd.org/domain/44
44. U.S. Census Bureau (2013-2017). QuickFacts, Upper Darby, Delaware County, Pennsylvania. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/upperdarbytownshipdelawarecountypennsylvania
45. National Center for Education Statistics (1987-2017). Demographic Characteristics of the Population.
46. Upper Darby School District Demographic Data. (2019). Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/elsi/tableGenerator.aspx.
47. Lien, A. (2018). Local districts spending more on kids. Retrieved January 8, 2019,
from https://chesterspirit.com/2018/06/local-districts-spending-more-on-kids/
48. American Community Survey (2012-2016), Education Maps. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/maped/ACSMaps/
49. Upper Darby School District School Finder. (2019). Retrieved January 27, 2019, from https://schfinder.com/UpperDarbySD/
50. Frankenberg, E. (2012). Understanding Suburban School District Transformation. In The Resegregation of Suburban Schools: A Hidden Crisis in American Education(pp. 27-44). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
51. NAEP Nations Report Card - National Assessment of Educational Progress - NAEP. (2018, December 07). Retrieved November 29, 2018, from https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
52. Housing Equality Center of Pennsylvania. (2015) History: Agency Timeline and Impact. Retrieved from http://www.equalhousing.org/history/
53. "Investigatory hearing concerning problems of racial tension in Eastern Delaware County”, (Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission October 7, 1980).
54. McColloch, D. (2013). Analysis of Impediments to Fair Housing Choice (pp. 1-131, Publication). Philadelphia, PA: Office of Housing and Community Development.
55. Dayanim, S. L. (2017). Inner Suburbs. Retrieved February 3, 2019, from https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/inner-suburbs/
56. U.S. Census Bureau (1980). Characteristics of the Population. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980/1980censusofpopu8011u_bw.pdf
57. Rorer, B. (2019, April 16). Upper Darby Public Schools [Personal interview].
58. Frankenberg, E., & Orfield, G. (2012). Why Racial Change in the Suburbs Matters. In The Resegregation of Suburban Schools: A Hidden Crisis in American Education(pp. 1-26). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
59. Husbands v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (United States District Court, E. D. Pennsylvania March 31, 1975).
60. Tustin, K. (2016, August 30). New school year starts in Upper Darby; old issues continue to swirl. Retrieved from https://www.delcotimes.com/news/new-school-year-starts-in-upper-darby-old-issues-continue/article_3c13bec4-2068-5118-8957-6f4a85b41412.html
61. Reilly, L. (2012, August 27). Upper Darby officials discuss controversial elementary school choice plan. Retrieved from https://www.delcotimes.com/news/upper-darby-officials-discuss-controversial-elementary-school-choice-plan/article_36041b1b-835c-5504-a268-e0fe925bb829.html
62. Boccella, K. (2016, August 28). In Upper Darby, it's back to school, and racial allegations. Retrieved from https://www.philly.com/philly/education/20160828_In_Upper_Darby__it_s_back_to_school__and_racial_allegations.html
63. Boccella, K. (2016, August 04). Some see racial overtones in Upper Darby superintendent flap. Retrieved from https://www.philly.com/philly/education/20160805_Some_see_racial_overtones_in_Upper_Darby_superintendent_flap.html
64. Dougherty, T. (2019, April 09). Upper Darby School District Authorizes Study About Building New Middle School In Clifton Heights. Retrieved from https://philadelphia.cbslocal.com/2019/04/09/upper-darby-school-district-study-building-new-middle-school-clifton-heights/